How does alpha radiation primarily affect biological tissue?

Alpha radiation primarily affects biological tissue by being easily absorbed in the outer layers of tissue. This is due to the large mass and charge of alpha particles, which limits their ability to penetrate materials, including biological tissues. When alpha particles come into contact with skin or other superficial tissues, they can transfer their energy effectively over a short distance, leading to localized damage in the area where they are deposited. This phenomenon is why alpha radiation is most hazardous when alpha-emitting materials are ingested or inhaled — it can cause significant harm to the internal tissues where it is absorbed, leading to cellular damage.

The other options refer to different mechanisms of action or effects that are not applicable to alpha radiation. Alpha particles do not have the capability to penetrate deeply, nor do they cause widespread systemic damage simply because of their physical characteristics and limited penetration ability. They are not effective at sparking chemical reactions within cells in the same way that other forms of radiation might interact, as their primary interaction is through direct collisions with atomic nuclei and electrons in the immediate vicinity.